VOLPONE
Genre: Comic drama, but also a satire.
Form: blank verse
(unrhymed iambic pentameter) mixed with comic song. Since the "plot"
is a low criminal conspiracy, the "subplot" is a parody of criminal
conspiracy set in Venice but involving an English
traveler, an English nobleman and his wife, all of whom are "on
tour."
Characters and Summary: This plot
closely parallels Horace's satire on legacy hunters (Book II.7) but dramatizes
it with characters whose flattened, comic/satiric personas represent various
types of human personality as they are distorted by greed, lust, and sheer
perversity. Jonson alerts us to the symbolic order of the action's
meaning by means of the names he assigns the primary characters: Volpone (fox--deceiver), Mosca (fly--parasite), Voltore
(vulture--scavenger/lawyer), Corbaccio (raven--wealthy, nearly deaf old, but still greedy man),
and Corvino (crow, another scavenger--the wealthy, jealous merchant
who can't get enough). These characters all seek to be named Volpone's
heir in order to gain his treasure, but they offer him gifts to achieve that
honor, and he (though nowhere near death) strings them along, more in love with
his delight in deceiving them than even his beloved gold. A love plot is
attached to this legacy-hunt, involving Corvino's
wife (Celia) and Corbaccio's son
(Bonario), but one of the play's puzzles is that they are such relatively
lifeless, though moral, characters. Below these levels, three more sets
of characters populate the stage. Nano (a dwarf), Castrone (an eunuch), and Androgyno (a hermaphrodite) join Mosca as Volpone's courtiers, Sir Poltic Would-be
and his wife are deceived by Peregrine (the young English man on the Continental tour), and the
elders of Venice alternately try to profit from and to bring justice to the
confusion (Commendatori [sheriffs], Mercatori [merchants, brothers
of Corvino], Avocatori [lawyers, brothers of
Voltore], and Notario [the court's registrar]).
So the plot, in brief, is that the
conspirators try to deceive Volpone, but he's really deceiving them, until his
agent (Mosca) deceives him (and them) and they bring him to the court, which
they all try to deceive, until they are unmasked (while Peregrine is being
deceived by and deceiving Sir and Lady Politic Would-be).
Context
Ironically, although "William Shakespeare" is by far the better-known
name today, we know a great deal more about the life of his fellow Elizabethan
dramatist Ben
Jonson. Our
knowledge of his personal life comes mainly from personal conversations
conducted between the playwright and William Drummond, the Laird of
Hawthornden, in 1619, which Drummond later wrote down. But it also reflects the
fact that whereas Shakespeare chose solely to express himself through his plays
and poems, Jonson was more of a public figure, prone to dramatic commentary on
literature and philosophy, highly personalized poems (as opposed to the mystery
of Shakespeare's sonnet cycle), as well as heavy involvement in the royal
entertainments of both King James I and Charles I. In his lifetime, he was more
honored than Shakespeare and served as an advisor to young poets until the time
of his death on August 16, 1637, at the age of sixty- five.
Despite this popularity, the facts
surrounding Jonson's birth remain, for the most part, obscure. Based on
evidence gathered later in his life, historians believe his birth date to be June
11, 1572,
a month after his biological father's death. His birthplace and the names of
his parents remain unknown. What is known is that he grew up in the village of Charing Cross, which was then a mile outside
the walled City of London. Charing was home both to the townhouses of
courtiers (nobles who attended at the court of Queen Elizabeth) as well as
masses of the urban poor, living in close proximity. Though Jonson's family was
by no means wealthy, it also was not extremely poor, since the man usually
identified as Jonson's stepfather, Robert Brett, was a moderately prosperous
bricklayer. As David Riggs notes, Jonson was "surrounded by extremes of
poverty and wealth from the earliest years of his life."
A "friend," whose name
is lost to history, paid for Jonson to attend Westminster school, one of the elite schools
of Elizabethan England, where Elizabeth herself attended the school's Christmas
play regularly. Attending the school greatly widened Jonson's social and
intellectual horizons, as it was the place where England's future ruling classes were
trained. Its students were either on scholarship for academic ability, or they
were sons of the nobility. As a result, Jonson friends in later life would
include many lawyers and a good share of nobility. At the age of sixteen, he
was forced to leave the school and tried his hand at soldiering—he joined the
English forces camped in the Netherlands—before becoming apprenticed to a
bricklayer in London.
The apprenticeship was terminated
when Jonson decided to marry Anne Lewis. In an era where marriage meant the
termination of an apprenticeship and was expected of men only when they had
achieved some sort of economic independence, this was an extremely rash move.
But it may very well be related to another decision Jonson made in the mid
1590s, which was a decision to devote his life to the theater. Jonson became
known as an hilariously bad actor, as well as a violent ruffian who once killed
a fellow actor without provocation, and it was only when he tried his hand at
writing plays instead of performing in them that he began to have success.
The profession of playwriting
hadn't existed at the time of Jonson's birth. It was a product of a change in
the activity of acting companies; whereas companies had previously toured,
beginning in the 1570s and 1580s they began to station themselves in the
ever-growing city of London, fast becoming the most important city in Great Britain. Since the audience would now
consist of repeat customers, a great demand for new plays was created. As the
theatre grew into an ever more profitable industry, thanks to more and more
Londoners' demands for more and more entertainment, one began to be able
support oneself by writing plays, and playwriting became a profession (though
one without a name; "playwright" wasn't used officially until 1682,
and Jonson actually used the term as one of abuse).
Jonson, with a string of popular
plays such as Every Man in His Humour (and some unpopular ones, such as Every
Man out of His Humour) gradually began to make a name for himself,
establishing a reputation as a witty, intellectual playwright, who was less
romantic and more cerebral than Shakespeare (by now a personal friend of
Jonson's). He became famous and well respected even though he had converted to
Catholicism during his first time in jail (being a Catholic in Protestant
England at the time was a very unpopular thing). But in 1605, he was arrested
for co-writing a play titled Eastward Ho, which the censors interpreted
(probably correctly) as a derogatory statement on the newly crowned King James.
That year, he had also separated from his wife.
Volpone was written at the end of this
extremely trying period, in the early months of 1606. It was one of Jonson's
biggest hits, and it firmly re- established him as an important literary
figure. Around the same time, he re- united with his wife. With this wealth of
personal and situational information about Jonson's life, many scholars have
made attempts to interpret the writing of Volpone as a psychological way
of resolving a fundamental conflict that we know existed within him. This
conflict was between Jonson's violent past and his fairly conservative view of
life and art, which was grounded in his classical education at Westminster. He idealized the countryside in
such poems as To Penshurst and saw much of the city life around him as
grasping, brutish, and nasty. He viewed his art as being a sort of moral
corrective to this "publicke riot." But, as was seen in 1606, he
still had some fairly rough character traits, which were inappopriate for the
voice of classical moderation and reason. So, according to critics such as
Riggs, Volpone serves as the repudiation of what Volpone the character
symbolizes: Jonson's rambunctious, reckless side, which had nearly cost him his
marriage, livelihood, and respectability. This interpretation does not tell us
everything about Volpone, but it may help us understand Jonson's seeming delight in
portraying his quick-witted, tricky types, which may have been characters he
identified with on an emotional level. But intellectually, he identified with
Celia and her value system. The conflict between the two value systems—one full
of desire and greed and another based on Christian morality and reason—is
central to Volpone and seems to have been a conflict with which Jonson
dealt personally.
Plot
Overview
Volpone
takes place in
seventeenth-century Venice, over the course of one day. The play opens at the
house of Volpone, a Venetian nobleman. He and his "parasite"
Mosca—part slave, part servant, part lackey—enter the shrine where Volpone
keeps his gold. Volpone has amassed his fortune, we learn, through dishonest
means: he is a con artist. And we also learn that he likes to use his money
extravagantly.
Soon, we see Volpone's latest con
in action. For the last three years, he has been attracting the interest of
three legacy hunters: Voltore, a lawyer; Corbaccio, an old gentleman; and
Corvino, a merchant—individuals interested in inheriting his estate after he
dies. Volpone is known to be rich, and he is also known to be childless, have
no natural heirs. Furthermore, he is believed to very ill, so each of the
legacy hunters lavishes gifts on him, in the hope that Volpone, out of
gratitude, will make him his heir. The legacy hunters do not know that Volpone
is actually in excellent health and merely faking illness for the purpose of
collecting all those impressive "get-well" gifts.
In the first act, each legacy
hunter arrives to present a gift to Volpone, except for Corbaccio, who offers
only a worthless (and probably poisoned) vial of medicine. But Corbaccio agrees
to return later in the day to make Volpone his heir, so that Volpone will
return the favor. This act is a boon to Volpone, since Corbaccio, in all
likelihood, will die long before Volpone does. After each hunter leaves, Volpone
and Mosca laugh at each's gullibility. After Corvino's departure Lady Politic
Would-be, the wife of an English knight living in Venice, arrives at the house but is told
to come back three hours later. And Volpone decides that he will try to get a
close look at Corvino's wife, Celia, who Mosca describes as one of the most
beautiful women in all of Italy. She is kept under lock and key
by her husband, who has ten guards on her at all times, but Volpone vows to use
disguise to get around these barriers.
The second act portrays a time
just a short while later that day, and we meet Sir Politic Would-be, Lady
Politic's husband, who is conversing with Peregrine, an young English traveler
who has just landed in Venice. Sir Politic takes a liking to
the young boy and vows to teach him a thing or two about Venice and Venetians; Peregrine, too,
enjoys the company of Sir Politic, but only because he is hilariously gullible
and vain. The two are walking in the public square in front of Corvino's house
and are interrupted by the arrival of "Scoto Mantua," actually
Volpone in diguise as an Italian mountebank, or medicine-show man. Scoto
engages in a long and colorful speech, hawking his new "oil", which
is touted as a cure-all for disease and suffering. At the end of the speech, he
asks the crows to toss him their handkerchiefs, and Celia complies. Corvino
arrives, just as she does this, and flies into a jealous rage, scattering the
crows in the square. Volpone goes home and complains to Mosca that he is sick
with lust for Celia, and Mosca vows to deliver her to Volpone. Meanwhile,
Corvino berates his wife for tossing her handkerchief, since he interprets it
as a sign of her unfaithfulness, and he threatens to murder her and her family
as a result. He decrees that, as punishment, she will now no longer be allowed
to go to Church, she cannot stand near windows (as she did when watching
Volpone), and, most bizarrely, she must do everything backwards from now on–she
must even walk and speak backwards. Mosca then arrives, implying to Corvino
that if he lets Celia sleep with Volpone (as a "restorative" for
Volpone's failing health), then Volpone will choose him as his heir. Suddenly,
Corvino's jealousy disappears, and he consents to the offer.
The third act begins with a
soliloquy from Mosca, indicating that he is growing increasingly conscious of
his power and his independence from Volpone. Mosca then runs into Bonario,
Corbaccio's son, and informs the young man of his father's plans to disinherit
him. He has Bonario come back to Volpone's house with him, in order to watch
Corbaccio sign the documents (hoping that Bonario might kill Corbaccio then and
there out of rage, thus allowing Volpone to gain his inheritance early).
Meanwhile Lady Politic again arrives at Volpone's residence, indicating that it
is now mid-morning, approaching noon. This time, Volpone lets her in,
but he soon regrets it, for he is exasperated by her talkativeness. Mosca
rescues Volpone by telling the Lady that Sir Politic has been seen in a gondola
with a courtesan (a high-class prostitute). Volpone then prepares for his
seduction of Celia, while Mosca hides Bonario in a corner of the bedroom, in
anticipation of Corbaccio's arrival. But Celia and Corvino arrive first—Celia
complains bitterly about being forced to be unfaithful, while Corvino tells her
to be quiet and do her job. When Celia and Volpone are alone together, Volpone
greatly surprises Celia by leaping out of bed. Celia had expected and old,
infirm man, but what she gets instead is a lothario who attempts to seduce her
with a passionate speech. Always the good Christian, Celia refuses Volpone's
advances, at which point Volpone says that he will rape her. But Bonario, who
has been witnessing the scene from his hiding place the entire time, rescues
Celia. Bonario wounds Mosca on his way out. Corbaccio finally arrives, too
late, as does Voltore. Mosca plots, with Voltore's assistance, how to get
Volpone out of this mess.
A short while later, in the early
afternoon, Peregrine and Sir Politic are still talking. Sir Politic gives the
young traveler some advice on living in Venice and describes several schemes he
has under consideration for making a great deal of money. They are soon
interrupted by Lady Politic, who is convinced that Peregrine is the prostitute
Mosca told her about—admittedly, in disguise. But Mosca arrives and tells Lady
Politic that she is mistaken; the courtesan he referred to is now in front of
the Senate (in other words, Celia). Lady Politic believes him and ends by
giving Peregrine a seductive goodbye with a coy suggestion that they see each
other again. Peregrine is incensed at her behavior and vows revenge on Sir
Politic because of it. The scene switches to the Scrutineo, the Venetian Senate
building, where Celia and Bonario have informed the judges of Venice about Volpone's deceit, Volpone's
attempt to rape Celia, Corbaccio's disinheritance of his son, and Corvino's
decision to prostitute his wife. But the defendants make a very good case for
themselves, led by their lawyer, Voltore. Voltore portrays Bonario and Celia as
lovers, Corvino as an innocent jilted husband, and Corbaccio as a wounded
father nearly killed by his evil son. The judge are swayed when Lady Politic
comes in and (set up perfectly by Mosca) identifies Celia as the seducer of her
husband Sir Politic. Further, they are convinced when Volpone enters the
courtroom, again acting ill. The judges order that Celia and Bonario be
arrested and separated.
In the final act, Volpone returns
home tired and worried that he is actually growing ill, for he is now feeling
some of the symptoms he has been faking. To dispel his fears, he decides to
engage in one final prank on the legacy hunters. He spreads a rumor that he has
died and then tells Mosca to pretend that he has been made his master's heir.
The plan goes off perfectly, and all three legacy hunters are fooled. Volpone
then disguises himself as a Venetian guard, so that he can gloat in each legacy
hunter's face over their humiliation, without being recognized. But Mosca lets
the audience know that Volpone is dead in the eyes of the world and that Mosca
will not let him "return to the world of the living" unless Volpone
pays up, giving Mosca a share of his wealth.
Meanwhile, Peregrine is in
disguise himself, playing his own prank on Sir Politic. Peregrine presents
himself as a merchant to the knight and informs Politic that word has gotten
out of his plan to sell Venice to the Turks. Politic, who once
mentioned the idea in jest, is terrified. When three merchants who are in
collusion with Peregrine knock on the door, Politic jumps into a tortoise-shell
wine case to save him. Peregrine informs the merchants when they enter that he
is looking at a valuable tortoise. The merchants decide to jump on the tortoise
and demand that it crawls along the floor. They remark loudly upon its
leg-garters and fine hand-gloves, before turning it over to reveal Sir Politic.
Peregrine and the merchants go off, laughing at their prank, and Sir Politic
moans about how much he agrees with his wife's desire to leave Venice and go back to England.
Meanwhile, Volpone gloats in front
of each legacy hunter, deriding them for having lost Volpone's inheritance to a
parasite such as Mosca, and he successfully avoids recognition. But his plan
backfires nonetheless. Voltore, driven to such a state of distraction by
Volpone's teasing, decides to recant his testimony in front of the Senate,
implicating both himself but more importantly Mosca as a criminal. Corvino
accuses him of being a sore loser, upset that Mosca has inherited Volpone's
estate upon his death, and the news of this death surprises the Senators
greatly. Volpone nearly recovers from his blunder by telling Voltore, in the
middle of the Senate proceeding, that "Volpone" is still alive. Mosca
pretends to faint and claims to the Senate that he does not know where he is,
how he got there, and that he must have been possessed by a demon during the
last few minutes when he was speaking to them. He also informs the Senators
that Volpone is not dead, contradicting Corvino. All seems good for Volpone
until Mosca returns, and, instead of confirming Voltore's claim that Volpone is
alive, Mosca denies it. Mosca, after all, has a will, written by Volpone and in
his signaure, stating that he is Volpone's heir. Now that Volpone is believed
to be dead, Mosca legally owns Volpone's property, and Mosca tells Volpone that
he is not going to give it back by telling the truth. Realizing that he has
been betrayed, Volpone decides that rather than let Mosca inherit his wealth,
he will turn them both in. Volpone takes off his disguise and finally reveals
the truth about the events of the past day. Volpone ends up being sent to
prison, while Mosca is consigned to a slave galley. Voltore is disbarred,
Corbaccio is stripped of his property (which is given to his son Bonario), and
Corvino is publicly humiliated, forced to wear donkey's ears while being rowed
around the canals of Venice. At the end, there is a small note from the
playwright to the audience, simply asking them to applaud if they enjoyed the
play they just saw.
Volpone - The protagonist of the
play. Volpone's name means "The Fox" in Italian. He is lustful,
lecherous, and greedy for pleasure. He is also energetic and has an unusual
gift for rhetoric, mixing the sacred and the profane to enunciate a passionate
commitment to self-gratification. He worships his money, all of which he has
acquired through cons, such as the one he now plays on Voltore, Corbaccio, and
Corvino. Volpone has no children, but he has something of a family: his
parasite, Mosca, his dwarf, Nano, his eunuch, Castrone, and his hermaphrodite,
Androgyno. Mosca is his only true confidante, and he begins to lust feverishly
after Celia upon first setting eyes on her.
Mosca - Mosca is Volpone's
parasite, a combination of his slave, his servant, his lackey, and his
surrogate child. Though initially (and for most of the play) he behaves in a
servile manner towards Volpone, Mosca conceals a growing independence he gains
as a result of the incredible resourcefulness he shows in aiding and abetting
Volpone's confidence game. Mosca's growing confidence, and awareness that the
others in the play are just as much "parasites" as he—in that they
too would rather live off the wealth of others than do honest work—eventually
bring him into conflict with Volpone, a conflict that destroys them both.
Celia -
The voice of goodness and religiosity in the play, Celia is the wife of
Corvino, who is extremely beautiful, enough to drive both Volpone and Corvino
to distraction. She is absolutely committed to her husband, even though he
treats her horribly, and has a faith in God and sense of honor, traits which
seem to be lacking in both Corvino and Volpone. These traits guide her toward
self- restraint and self-denial. Her self-restraint makes her a foil for
Volpone, who suffers a complete absence of that quality.
Voltore - One of the three
legacy hunters or carrion-birds—the legacy hunters continually circle around
Volpone, giving him gifts in the hope that he will choose them as his heir.
Voltore is a lawyer by profession, and, as a result, he is adept in the use of
words and, by implication, adept in deceit, something he proves during the
course of the play. He is also something of a social climber, conscious of his
position in his society and resentful at being overtaken by others on the way
up.
Corvino - An extremely vicious and dishonorable character, Corvino
is Celia's jealous husband. He frequently threatens to do disgusting acts of
physical violence to her and her family in order to gain control over her. Yet
he is more concerned with financial gain than with her faithfulness, seeing
her, in essence, as a piece of property. Corvino is another one of the
"carrion-birds" circling Volpone.
Corbaccio - The third "carrion-bird" circling Volpone,
Corbaccio is actually extremely old and ill himself and is much more likely to
die before Volpone even has a chance to bequeath him his wealth. He has a
hearing problem and betrays no sign of concern for Volpone, delighting openly
in (fake) reports of Volpone's worsening symptoms.
Bonario - The son of Corbaccio.
Bonario is an upright youth who remains loyal to his father even when his
father perjures against him in court. He heroically rescues Celia from Volpone
and represents bravery and honor, qualities which the other characters seem to
lack.
Sir Politic Would-be -
An English knight who resides in Venice. Sir Politic represents the
danger of moral corruption that English travelers face when they go abroad to
the continent, especially to Italy. He occupies the central role in
the subplot, which centers on the relationship between himself and Peregrine,
another English traveler much less gullible than the good knight. Sir Politic
is also imaginative, coming up with ideas for moneymaking schemes such as using
onions to detect the plague, as well as the idea of making a detailed note of
every single action he performs in his diary, including his urinations.
Lady Politic Would-be - The Lady Politic Would-be is portrayed as a
would-be courtesan. She was the impetus for the Would-bes move to Venice, because of her desire to learn
the ways of the sophisticated Venetians. She is very well read and very
inclined to let anyone know this, or anything else about her. She is extremely
vain.
Peregrine - Peregrine is a young English
traveler who meets and befriends Sir Politic Would- be upon arriving in Venice. Peregrine is amused by the
gullible Would-be, but is also easily offended, as demonstrated by his adverse
reaction to Lady Politic Would-be's suggestive comments.
Nano - Nano, as his named in Italian indicates ("nano"
means "dwarf"), is a dwarf. He is also Volpone's fool, or jester,
keeping Volpone amused with songs and jokes written by Mosca.
Castrone - The only notable fact about Castrone is that his
name means eunuch ("castrone" means "eunuch" in
Italian). There is not much else to say about Castrone, as he has no speaking
lines whatsoever.
Androgyno -
"Androgyno" means "hermaphrodite" in Italian, and as
in the case of Nano and Castrone, the name rings true. Androgyno apparently
possesses the soul of Pythagoras, according to Nano, which has been in gradual
decline ever since it left the ancient mathematician's body.
acknowledgement&Copyrights-Star notes, gradesavers
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